Europe and the World: New Encounters

• Spain became rich after finding gold and silver in the new World
• Drake became rich by attacking Spanish ships
• Almost everyone who was enslaved died enslaved
• Chocolate and Sugar were very expensive when it first came to Europe
• The Spanish queen gave her daughter a box of sugar for a Christmas present; which was valuable

On the Brink of a New World#

• For centuries European contact with the outside world was limited to Northern Africa and Asia, what led them to voyage into the Atlantic? When did they begin doing this?
  • They did this at the end of the 15th century. They began doing this in order to create more sea routes to go around the mainland in order to reach Asia for trade.
• In 1271, Marco Polo ventured to visit the Mongols in Eastern Asia. What happened in the 14th century that stifled overland travels to the east from Europe?
  • The conquest of the Ottomans/Turks and the breakup of the Mongol empire.
• What kinds of items did Europeans have high demand for that were supplied by the East?
  • The Europeans were in high demand for spices, gold and other precious metals from the east.
• What is religious zeal? Why were Spanish and Portuguese so interested in the business of crusades?
  • Zeal was the excitement and passion of spreading Christianity. The Spanish and Portuguese were interested in the business of the crusade because it would increase the number of Catholics in Europe while driving out the Muslims.
• Who was Henry the Navigator? Who was Hernan Cortes?
  • Henry the Navigator was the conqueror of Mexico. While conquering the natives of Mexico he introduced the Catholic faith to the natives. He believed that if the natives had the catholic faith in their life they would have something to work for which was to get to heaven.
• It is said the primary motives for European expansion were the "Three G's" - what are they?
  • God, Glory, Gold
• What are portolani, or portolan charts? What qualities did they have?
  • Portolani charts made by medieval navigators in the 13th and 14th century were useful, they had details on coastal contours, distances between ports, compass readings, they had great values for voyages in Europe.
• Who was Ptolemy? Why was the use of his invention by navigators somewhat ironic for the 15th century?
  • Ptolomy’s work “the geography” had been known to arab geographers as early as the 8th century, but it wasn't until the 15th century that a latin translation was made of the work. It was one of the most important world maps to the europeans. The map made adventures believe that it would be feasible to sail West from Europe to reach Asia.
• Describe some of the improvements to shipbuilding and sailing that allowed Europeans to venture across the seas?
  • Some improvements included the use of the axial rudder, sailing against the wind, also the compass and astrolabe while helping the sailors navigate.

New Horizons: The Portuguese and Spanish Empires#

• What kingdom was an early leader in navigation and expansion? Where did they set up their trading posts? What kinds of items were they primarily interested in bringing back to Europe?
  • Portugal was the kingdom that led in navigation and expansion in the earlier years. They set up their trading post along the Gold Coast which was on the hump of West Africa. They brought back gold, slaves and ivory.
• What were the accomplishments of Bartolomeu Dias? Vasco da Gama?
  • They took advantage of the winds that led them to the south Atlantic which they would eventually land in the Cape of Good Hope. But, Gama stopped at many ports controlled by Muslim Merchants along east Africa, he also crossed the Arabian Sea and reached the port of Calicut where he found spices.
• What was the significance of Goa to the Portuguese? What about Malacca?
  • Goa was the headquarters of the Portuguese operations throughout the entire region. Malacca was a major part of the route to the Moluccas, which was the spice islands.
• What allowed the Portuguese to be so successful on the high seas?
  • The Portuguese were so successful in the high seas because of their matter of guns and seamanship, their military tactics, and naval technology which all gave them an advantage over their armed rivals.
• Where did the Spanish set up their overseas colonies? Why? Who funded Columbus's voyage? Why?
  • The Spanish set up their overseas colonies in the Americas because Columbus thought it was the Asia he was colonizing. Columbus’ voyage was funded by the Spanish crown, Queen Isabella, to find faster trade routes to Asia and spread the religion of catholicism.
• Why did the New World come to be nicknamed "America"?
  • The publication of Amerigo Vespucci’s letters describing the geography of the New World, so they named the lands “America” after Amerigo.
• Spain and Portugal were competing in the New World. Where were their settlements located and what did the Treaty of Tordesillas do?
  • Their settlements were located in North, Central, and South America. The treaty divided the new world between the Spanish and Portuguese to prevent further conflict between the two countries on territory. This not only gave the two countries land but also trading routes, which was decided by the pope at the time.
• What allowed the Conquistadors to excel in taking over new lands?
  • The conquistadors excelled in taking land because they were superior to the natives in weapons, organizational skills, determination, and they transferred disease to the natives which killed 90% of the native population.
• Read the letter Columbus wrote to Raphael Sanchez and the King and Queen of Spain on page 411. How might Columbus have been attempting to portray his expedition? Can we trust what he said? What motives may he have had in the way he wrote the letter?
  • He’s portraying his expedition as smooth and problem-free. Saying the natives were compliant to everything but he wanted the King and queen of Spain to realize how submissive and uncivilized they were. He promised an abundance of wealth and even religious conversion. Both of which were very important to the King and Queen. He also wrote very highly of them to gain more favor and finance.
• The Mayan civilization had already vanished by the time the Europeans arrived. However, the Aztecs were thriving. Where were they located? How does Spielvogel describe them?
  • The Aztecs were located in the Valley of Mexico, which Tenochtitlan served as their capital located on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. He described them as surprisingly civilized in a way, but they were not as proper as Europeans.
• Did the Aztecs and the multiple dozens of other tribes in the New World get along with one another? How did this affect European settlement?
  • They all got along, for there was no central government raining over all of them, but because they were all spread out it was hard for them to unify in fighting the Europeans. This made it easier for Europeans to attack each civilization individually.
• What was the relationship between Montezuma and Cortes? How did that end?
  • Montezuma believed Cortes was a representative of the return of the god Quetzalcoatl and offered them gold and shelter in fear. But, Cortes took advantage of the hospitality and captured Montezuma and pillaged the city. The population revolted and killed a lot of Spanish, but ultimately the natives began to die from Smallpox.
• Where were the Inca located as compared to the Aztecs? Who was their ruler? How many people made up their empire?
  • The Incas were located in the mountains of Cuzo, southern Peru, instead of the valleys. The ruler of the Incas was Pachakuti, who ruled over 12 million Inca civilians.
• What are some similarities between the Aztecs and the Inca? (hint, at least 4... on page 414)
  • Some similarities between the Aztecs and Incas include that the emperor was the highest ruler, both civilizations were good builders, both constructed bridges, and both had the same population sizes in each of their provinces.
• Spielvogel described the administration of the New World as being exploitative, confusing, and one of "misguided paternalism" What does he mean by this term?
  • He is trying to say that the ideas of the New World were confusing to the explorers because they had never seen a civilization like that before.
• What is the encomienda system? How was running the encomienda in the New World probably different than if it were in Spain?
  • The encomienda system was an economic and social system that allowed the Spanish conquistadors to collect tribute from the Indians to use as laborers. In return, the Spanish holders were supposed to protect the Indians, pay them, and supervise their spiritual needs.
• What group opposed the mistreatment of the Natives? Especially who can be attributed to ending the encomienda system?
  • The Dominican friars were opposed to the mistreatment of the natives. Bartolome de Las Casas was attributed to ending the encomienda system.
• What replaced the encomienda system? How did it operate?
  • An administrative system where Viceroys had authority in a colony on behalf of the mother country. The system divided into two administrations; new Spain and Peru. Viceroys promote peace and pacification by being the chief civil and military officers helped by an advisory group.
• Explain the role of Smallpox in conquering the New World. Be specific.
  • Smallpox in the new world spread through droplets in the air and direct contact with infected objects such as clothing. Because smallpox was a European disease the Indians were much more affected by the disease, killing ⅓ of the Indian population. The disease in total killed 30-40% of the population, even reaching New England.

New Rivals on the World Stage#

• By the mid 17th c (1600s) what happened to the Portuguese control of the coasts of Africa and India
  • The dutch seized many of the Portuguese forts along the west African coast and took control of the trade across the Indian ocean. The dutch set up settlements at the Cape of Good Hope which eventually became permanent colonies.
• What is a Boer? Where did they and the Dutch East India Company set up shop? Why this location?
  • Boer is a Dutch farmer. Boers set up shop in Southern Africa/ Cape town for the area’s moderate climate and freedom from tropical diseases.
• Although slavery had been around in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe for centuries what changed the nature of slavery and truly drove the Atlantic Slave Trade beginning in the late 15th century? Where were the greatest number of slaves brought in the New World? By whom?
  • Discovery of the Americas who planted sugarcane in South America and the Caribbean, which brought a high need for more workers and labor. The poor climate and soil which was bad for agriculture took the slave trade to the Americas. The greatest area for slaves was Brazil and the Caribbean.
• Explain what "Triangular Trade" is by drawing a small diagram (or pasting a picture and writing a description) and labeling it appropriately. (hint, carefully examine the map on page 417)
  • The triangular trade was an exchange of goods between the western and eastern hemispheres. Goods were prepared in Europe and shipped across the Atlantic ocean to West African coasts where the goods were exchanged for slaves. The slaves were shipped across the Caribbean to be exchanged for sugar, rum, and other items. The items were shipped back to Europe.
• Describe what the experience of a slave being transported across the Middle Passage was like. How many slaves were brought in total to the new world? Which nation ultimately transported the most over to the New World?
  • The slaves were tightly packed in ships where some would die of suffocation or hunger. Many slaves jumped off the boat instead of being a slave for the rest of their life. 10 million slaves were brought to the new world and Britain was the leading transport of these slaves.
• Where did most of the African slaves come from in Africa? Who traded them?
  • The slaves mostly came from slave markets in South Africa and traded by merchants who would receive gold, guns, textiles, copper, or iron utensils in return.
• When did talks of abolishing slavery begin? By whom? When did it finally end?
  • The society of Quakers began to criticque slavery in the 1770s and was the first known to talk about abolishing slavery. In France, slavery ended in the 1790s. In Britain and America, slavery ended in the 1800s.
• Why did Portugal ultimately lose out on being able to control their trading posts?
  • Portugal lost control because of a lack of wealth, lack of people to maintain the posts, and their rivals were better financed.
• Who took over the Dutch interests in India in the 1650s? Where did they first settle? What empire was in power when they arrived? Who was their biggest competitor?
  • The English took over the dutch in India in the 1650s. The English first settled in Surat, Fort William, and Madres. Portugal was the empire that was in charge at the time of their arrival. France was England's biggest competitor.
• What happened at the Battle of Plassey? What was the British East India Company, and what role would it play for the next century and a half?
  • In 1757 a small British force numbering 3000 defeated a Mughal-led army much larger in size in the Battle of Plassey. The British East India company could now collect taxes in lands surrounding Calcutta. To historians, the entire Indian subcontinent was under the control of the Company.
• By the 17th century, how did the Chinese view themselves? How did they view the Europeans? What dynasty was in charge? What happened?
  • China appeared to be at the height of its power as the most significant civilization on earth. They viewed the Europeans as unusual barbarians and younger brothers of the great Chinese emperor. The Ming dynasty was in charge at the arrival of the Portuguese, however, it is in numbered days when an epidemic ultimately leads to their defeat and the conquering by the Manchus who started the Qing dynasty.
• Where did the British East India Company set up shop in China? What was the agreement with the Qing dynasty? What happened when the British attempted to expand their trade in China?
  • At Canton in 1699 to limit contact between Europeans and Chinese the Qing government confined all European traders to a small island just outside the city walls of Canton only from October through March. The Chinese rejected Britain’s proposal and would later pay for the rejection.
• Japan was close to anarchy in the late 15th century. What does this mean? Who took control? How long did they stay in power?
  • A number of powerful individuals achieved the unification of Japan; Tokugawa leyasu was shogun in 1603 and initiated the most powerful and long-lasting shogunate in Japan until 1868.
• What happened to Christians in Japan? Why were the Dutch allowed to stay in Nagasaki? What were the conditions?
  • They were persecuted and violently suppressed if necessary; they had not let missionary activities interfere with trade interests like Spain and Portuguese. But the Dutch ships were only allowed to dock at Nagasaki harbor just once a year and could only remain for two to three months.
• How did English and French settlements differ from the settlements set up by the Portuguese and Spanish in the New World? What major asset were they interested in getting from the New World? What three factors led to Spain's decline and being eclipsed by the British and French? (hint, read pg 425)
  • The Spanish declined because of a drop in the output of the silver mine production and the poverty of the Spanish monarchy and the rivalries of other European nations. The English and French produced plantation economies and heavily used African slaves, although they were kinder to the Natives.
• When the British said "prescription without possession availeth nothing" what did they mean? How is this a clue to the British mindset of the colonization methods they used?
  • The British ignored the Spanish’s claim to virtually all the land in the Americas because a lot of it was not being utilized. Just because you claim a country doesn't mean it’s yours, they used this mindset when also conquering the natives.
• Where did the English first settle in North America? When? Was it successful? Why or why not?
  • Jamestown was the first settlement in North America; it was established in 1607. It wasn’t successful at first due to the many deaths in the colony.
• What was the first successful English colony? Who did it attract from England? What was the central purpose of the colonies in North America?
  • The first colony that was successful was the Massachusetts colony, which attracted the puritans and those who were opposed to the British government. The purpose of the colony was to allow the puritans to practice religion in peace.
• How was the French version of colonizing North America different from the English? What region did they stake a claim as their territory? Why was it thinly populated compared to the English territories? What kinds of items did they trade by contrast to their English competitors?
  • The French were interested in the Canadian region, but they ran into where Canada was made the property of the French crown and ran by a French governor like a french province. They traded valuable furs, leather, fish, and timber but their inability to get French immigrants left the territory thinly populated.
• Describe British and French relations with the Spanish and Portuguese in the New World. What happened? What was the "asiento"?
  • The British and French were too powerful to be excluded from Spanish and Portuguese trade and mercantilism. The French were the first to break into the Spanish Latin America market when French Bourbons became kings of Spain, and the British were granted privileges known as asiento of transporting 4500 slaves a year to Spanish Latin America.

The Impact of European Expansion#

• Compare and contrast the effects of European exploration and expansion on the following territories:

• How is the population of Central and South America so different from that of North America? What caused these differences? What are mestizos? What are mulattoes?
  • The populations of central and south America were multiracial instead of mostly white descended from Europe. The causes include Spanish settlers who had kids with native females (mestizos) and Spanish settlers having kids with slaves (mulattoes).
• Between Protestants and Catholics, which had the higher missionary drive? Why do you suppose so many natives chose to convert to Christianity? What effects did this have on them?
  • The Catholics had a higher missionary drive than the protestants. The religion showed them a stable christian life of hospitals, schools, orphanages and protected them from foreign invaders. The effects it had included it brought many goods and resources and opened them up to many different opportunities.
• Describe the missionary efforts in China and Japan. What religious order was most prominent there? How "complete" were these conversions to Christianity by the Chinese and/or Japanese?
  • The Jesuits were the most active and effective of the missionaries for Chinese and Japanese, they were able to convert a good amount of officials and common men. But, squabbling among the religious orders themselves undermined the Christian effort. Also, to make conversion easier, Jesuits allowed the continuing practice of ancestor worship.
• Fill in the chart on the Columbian Exchange. List as many things as you can (not just food, think outside the box)

• Explain a few major ways that life in Europe (the Old World) changed as European expansion continued over the 17th and 18th centuries? How did it affect the European mentality or their world view?
  • Lifestyle in Europe was affected by new products from abroad, new drinks and tea and coffee houses emerged. They also had a new view of the world from more accurate maps and projection technologies, they secured the superiority complex through easy submission of the Indians.

Toward a World Economy#

• What was the "price revolution" also sometimes called the "market revolution"?
  • This was an economic event in the 15th century and the first half of the 17th century where a high rate of inflation in Western Europe occurred.
  • What is inflation?
    • A general increase in prices and a fall in the purchasing value of money.
  • Who were the winners and losers of this economic shift?
    • Winners were landed aristocrats and commercial/industrial entrepreneurs. The losers are agricultural laborers and salaried workers in urban areas.
• What is a Joint-Stock company? Which European power was the closest to being a capitalist economy? Why isn't it necessarily accurate to say that European nations operated as capitalists during this time, despite the fact that they were witnessing the growth of commercial capitalism?
  • Individuals bought shares into a company and received dividends on their investments while a board of directors ran the company and made the important business decisions. It made it easier to raise large amounts of capital for world trading ventures; the Dutch were the closest, but most of European economy still depended on an agricultural system that had changed little. 80 percent of populations still worked on land.
• What is mercantilism? How is it fundamentally different from capitalism? What is bullion, or bullionism?
  • Mercantilism is the belief of profitable trading to the mothercountry from the colonies. Capitalism views wealth as a key to economic growth and mercantilism believes economic success can be achieved through removal of wealth. Bullion is gold and silver.

Short Answer#

1. Explain the technological factors that facilitated European exploration and expansion from 1450 to 1648.
   • Portolani charts made by medieval navigators in the 13th and 14th century were useful, they had details on coastal contours, distances between ports, compass readings, they had great values for voyages in Europe. Ptolomy’s work “the geography” had been known to arab geographers as early as the 8th century, but it wasn't until the 15th century that a latin translation was made of the work. It was one of the most important world maps to the europeans. The map made adventures believe that it would be feasible to sail West from Europe to reach Asia. Also, innovation was found in shipbuilding where they mastered the use of the axial rudder and learned to combine the use of lateen sails with a square rig. This allowed them to construct ships mobile enough to sail against the wind and engage in naval warfare and also be large to mount heavy cannons and carry a substantial amount of goods.
2. Explain the motivations for and effects of European exploration and expansion from 1450 to 1648.
   • The motives of the Europenas and expansion were god, gold, and glory. The spanish wanted to expand their religion of catholicism to the new world as in the new world Martin Luther takes down the catholic religion in the old world. The Europeans also were in search of riches such as gold and originally looking for faster trading routes. European explorers were also in search of glory as in their hometowns explorers were seen as celebrities.
3. Explain how and why trading networks and colonial expansion affected relations between and among European states.
   • In Europe at the time the main powers of Europe were in high competition with one another. As Spain found gold in South America this encouraged other countries to seek the same, but also spread religion which helped the region's power.
4. Explain the economic impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks.
   • The columbian exchange was beneficial to the Europeans because the trade networks allowed them to improve their economy in many ways. The Europeans were allowed to trade and acquire new goods from the new world. Also, in the new world they were able to set up plantations where they could gain much money by cultivating. This lead to the slave trade which also helped their economy.
5. Explain the social and cultural impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks.
   • The population of native americans was mostly affected by colonialism. They were destroyed by european disease and their way of life was undermined by the Europeans. The Europeans forced their religion and way of life on the natives.
6. Explain the causes for and the development of the slave trade.
   • When the Europeans began to colonize the Americas and cultivate the land, a need for labor increased. Because the crops in the new world were so economically beneficial to Europe they wanted to increase the amount they produced. So, a need for labor made them look toward natives and slaves. Thus, slavery increased while the natives fell to european disease.
7. Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their economic effects from 1450 to 1648.
   • Crops exchanged between the New and Old worlds revolutionized the plantation agriculture of tobacco and sugarcane. It also brought new foods to Europe that led to a population increase and new prosperity. The natives taught them new agriculture techniques that they brought back to practice in europe.