State Building and the Search for Order in the Seventeenth Century

Competition among sovereign states led to new patterns of diplomacy and new forms of warfare.

Crash Course#

Major Concepts#

• absolutism
• divine-right monarchy
• intendants
• parlements
• boyars
• procurator
• Janissaries
• gentry
• Mannerism
• Baroque

The Practice of Absolutism: Western Europe#

• What is absolutism? What is sovereignty? What is divine right? What are the differences between these terms? How are they connected?
  • Absolutism is the political practice of unlimited centralized authority in one person, King Louis XIV the perfect example of an absolute monarch. Sovereignty is the ultimate authority over an area for any law making decisions, again KIng Louis XIV a great example of this. Divine right is the belief that a figure of authority was put in his place by God so his decisions should not be questioned nor should they be taken down from their position until God wills it. They are connected because all three give a monarch unlimited authority over their area with limited questions. They are different because of the different beliefs that achieve the power they each give to a monarch.
• Who is Cardinal Richelieu? What role did he play in the reign of Louis XIII? What means did Cardinal Richelieu use to acquire political influence?
  • Cardinal Richelieu is ruled as regent to the boy kings on the french throne. He placed policies that eventually strengthened the power of the monarchy like taking the Huguenots political and military rights but preserving their religious rights. He created a network of spies that uncovered noble plots and crushed royal opponents which eliminated a huge threat to the crown.
• What are "intendants" and what function did they play in French government?
  • The intendants were royal officials sent out to do the central government's bidding. Their power came into conflict with provincial governors and they were meant to collect money for the french government but the whole system became corrupt.
• How might Cardinal Richelieu's fiscal policies be considered generally ill-fated? Who do you suppose it affected the most in the French population?
  • The basic system easily became corrupt and many people benefited from this inefficiency, so Richelieu had a hard time fixing it because of all the support they had. This most likely affected the poor or lower classes of the french population because their taxes only applied to them, so the continuous increase in price would affect them the most.
• What is a "regency" or a "regent"? What role did this play in the reign of Louis XIV? Who was Cardinal Mazarin?
  • A regent is a person that rules in place of a king that is unfit in some way. Anne of Austria, Louis XIV's mother, was his regent because he became king at four years old, which means he is obviously unfit to rule France at the time. Cardinal Mazarin took Cardinal Richelieu's place in controlling the government after his death and tried to continue his policies.
• How did French nobles feel about Mazarin? Why? What is the "Fronde"?
  • The nobles felt unhappy with Mazarin because he was a foreigner and collected centralized administration power at the expense of noble power. The Fronde was an attempted overthrow of Mazarin and the regent by the nobles because of their unhappiness. The first Fronde was by the nobles of the robe, Paris Parliament and nobles, and was ended with a compromise. The second Fronde was the nobles of the sword, descendants of medieval nobility, so they could advance their political position.
• To what extent was the Sun King's authority truly absolute and centralized? In what ways was it not? (Hint, another potential DBQ or SAQ...)
  • The Sun King's authority was not truly absolute and centralized. Despite his and past efforts France still had multiple overlapping authority systems. Provinces had their own regional courts, parliament, and laws and high nobility still exercised great power. He was able to reconstruct the policy making of the government because it was a part of his own court.
• Who was the biggest threat to Louis XIV's rule? How did he resolve this?
  • The greatest danger was the very high nobles and princes of the blood considering it their natural function to assert the policy making role of royal ministers. He resolved this by removing them from the royal council and enticing them with a royal court that kept them busy.
• What are parlements? How did the King deal with distant provinces?
  • The parlements were provincial law courts responsible for registering new laws. It was largely dealt with by bribing the officials running them but they could still deny his laws if they didn't like them so he exercised political and economical power over them to get control.
• What was Louis XIV's religious policy? What was the Edict of Fontainebleau?
  • Louis XIV's religious policy was against Protestantism because he felt he could not rule with absolute power unless they all had one religion. The Edict of Fontainebleau revoked the edict of Nantes and legalized the destruction of huguenot churches and protestant schools which caused a huge movement of french Protestants leaving for asylum in other countries.
• What role did Jean-Baptiste Colbert play in Louis XIV's reign? What kinds of fiscal policies did he enact?
  • Jean-Baptiste Colbert was the controller of general finances. He put in mercantilist policies and focused on more internal production and less external imports or buying. He founded new luxury industries by bringing in people to train others and providing tax breaks for people that created new industries in France.
• Why are some historians skeptical of Colbert's economic policies?
  • They are skeptical because his regulations were often evaded, the placement of high tariffs brought foreign disagreement, and caused french trading companies to come into global trade too late to compete with other countries.
• In what ways did the Palace of Versailles function as a tool for the King? Why did nobles go along with affairs held at Versailles?
  • It was a tool because it became the court of high nobility and blood princes by keeping them busy and out of french politics. They went along with it because the court there became a symbol for France's superiority, wealth, and power. They could also earn titles and pensions only the king would grant by participating in these silly activities.
• War occurred almost non-stop during the reign of Louis XIV. What were the four major wars that took place during his reign? (to find the names you may have to utilize outside sources) What was the purpose of each, or alternatively, what did he gain (or lose) from each?
  • Wars of Devolution (1667-1668)
    • Louis XIV began his first war by invading the spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté, but the triple alliance of Dutch, English, and Swedish forced him to sue for peace and accept a couple towns in the Spanish Netherlands for his efforts.
  • Dutch War (1672-1678)
    • Louis never forgave Dutch for creating the triple alliance and isolated them to invade the United Provinces with some success. Another alliance of Spanish, Romans, and Brandenburg forced an end to the war and the Spanish gave french Franche-Comté to satisfy Louis XIV's appetite for land but only stimulated it.
  • War of the League of Augsburg (1689-1697)
    • Louis went after the Holy Roman Empire because he thought they wouldn't resist but they then created the League of Augsburg with Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, and England to defeat France. This brought economic struggle and famine to France so in the Treaty of Ryswick Louis was forced to end the war and give up any land he gained except for Strasbourg and part of Alsace.
  • War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713)
    • This war happened after Charles II, a sickly and childless hapsburg ruler left the Spanish throne in his will toa grandson of Louis XIV. When Phillip V took the throne Europeans were scared France and Spain would unite and destroy the European balance of power a new coalition of England, the united Provinces, Habsburg Austria, and German states was created. The Peace of Utrecht was created and acknowledged Phillip V as the Spanish ruler but made the thrones and families separate so they could not unite.
• How did the reign of Louis XIV end? Who took over?
  • Louis XIV's reign ended two years after the Peace of Utrecht and he expressed great remorse for all of the things he did on the French throne. His great grandson, who was only five, took the throne after being given Louis' remorse filled last words telling him to have peace with his neighbors and people.
• Spielvogel argues that Spain was in decline during the 17th century. What evidence does he offer to substantiate this claim?
  • He offers evidence that Spain was bankrupt from their expenditures on war (Phillip II) and on court (Phillip III), their armed forces were outdated, their government inefficient, oversupplies of monks, a weak commercial class, and an overspending noble class.
    
    
    

Absolutism in Central, Eastern, and Northern Europe#

• What effect did the Treaty of Westphalia have on the Holy Roman Empire? What German territory, under which dynasty, began to rise to prominence during the 17th century?
  • The Peace of Westphalia left the states in the Holy Roman Empire virtually autonomous and sovereign. Brandenburg-Prussia with the Hohenzollern dynasty and Austria under the Habsburg dynasty began to rise in the 17th century.
• Who was Frederick William the Great Elector? What are some of his major accomplishments? Who are junkers? How well did they get along with Frederick William?
  • Frederick William the Great Elector came to power during the 30 Years war and built an efficient and competent standing army, he also created the General War Commissariat to originally levy taxes for the army but it later became an agency for civil government. Junkers were officials that were members of the Prussian landed aristocracy and served as officers in their all-important army. They had a good relationship because of the agreement they had with him that they got complete control over the peasants in exchange for giving up their general power.
• How did the Austrian Habsburgs (as opposed to the Spanish Habsburgs) proceed after the end of the Holy Roman Empire? What threat did they continue to face in the east? How was this resolved? What effect did the end of the War of Spanish Succession have on the Austrian Empire?
  • They created a new empire of Austria, Cariniola, Styria, and Tyrol in eastern and southeastern Europe. They were facing the revival of Ottoman power and effectively defeated them creating the Treaty of Karlowitz where Austria took control of southeastern Europe. It left a positive impact because they gained land and formal recognition from other countries.
• What two powers had the most influence in the Italian peninsula from the mid 1500s to the start of the 18th century? Who took over one of those powers after the Treaty of Utrecht (1713)?
  • The Spanish and French were the most influential and after the Treaty of Utrecht Austria replaced Spain as a dominant power in Italy.
• Who was the first "tsar" or "czar" of Russia? Who were the Boyars? What were the "Times of Trouble"? Which dynasty emerged as the next long-standing line of tsars in Russia?
  • Ivan IV the Terrible was the first to take the title tsar and Boyars were the Russian nobility. The "Times of Trouble" was a resurgence of aristocratic power and anarchy. The Romanov dynasty became the next line of Russian tsars.
• Describe Peter the Great. Does his title match his character? What was his vision for Russia?
  • Peter the Great was unusual, he was a strong and tall man (6ft and 9in), who was rude and enjoyed crude humor or vicious punishments. His character does not match my personal version of "Great" but he did do amazing things for Russia. He had a modern and western vision for Russia and his determination got him there.
• Describe how Peter the Great reorganized and centralized Russia's government. What was the Table of Ranks?
  • He first created a strong army and navy, the first Russia had ever had, after western military systems. He created a Senate that became a ruling council but its uselessness caused Peter to change it to borrow the western institution of colleges. Peter also broke Russia up into 50 provincies. The Table of Ranks was created to help opportunities for non nobles to serve the states and join nobility.
• What measures did Peter the Great take to expand the military and navy of Russia? How did he go about paying for these endeavors?
  • He created the first navy in Russia and made the army available to have Russian and European officers. He drafted peasts, much to their displeasure, for 25 year services to build his humongous army. Peter heavily taxed the peasants after trying to apply mercantilist policies that ultimately failed.
• What was the "Holy Synod" and what did the procurator do?
  • The Holy Synod was the ruling body of the Georigian Orthodox Church. The procurator was a figurehead of religion and only looked out for the best interests of the tsar and confirmed Peter's domination of the church.
• In what ways was Russia westernized as a result of Peter the Great's social policies? Who benefited the most? How was Russia still quite backwards from other European areas?
  • Peter created the fashion police and outlawed long beards, long coats, and women's veils. The English and women benefited the most because they were learning from the english and women had looser restrictions.
• Who was the Great Northern War between? What happened at the Battle of Poltava? Who won this war and what did they receive as a result? What new capital city did Peter create in the image of Versailles?
  • The Great Northern War was fought between Russia and Sweden. Peter the Great fought against Charles XII and won, but he almost lost early on. Russia won the war and received Estonia, Livonia, and Karelic and Peter made St.Petersburg in the image of Versailles and a window to the west.
• What unexpected outcome did the Westernizing of Russia have on much of the population?
  • It caused a great burden to fall on the peasants when they did not experience any benefits of westernization.
• What role did the Ottoman Empire have in 17th century Europe? What major strengths did it possess? Why did Spielvogel refer to the Ottoman Empire as the sleeping giant? What caused the giant to awaken?
  • The Ottoman tried to complete their conquest of the Balkans which they had established during the fourteenth century. Their strength limited how their monarchy ruled and they were constantly surrounded by bloodshed. They were kicked out after losing to the new European coalition.
• Spielvogel presents a counterargument to the idea of absolutism and suggests that it is misleading to believe that kings actually controlled the lives of their subjects. What pieces of evidence does he present to suggest this?
  • In some of their places their strength put severe limits on how their absolute monarchy could rule.

Limited Monarchy and Republics#

• Why was Poland weaker and more decentralized by comparison to other European states? What role did the end of the Jagiello dynasty play? What role did the Sejm play? If no central authority controlled Poland, who was in power?
  • Poland's struggles revolved around the bitter and internal fight between the crown and landed nobility. The new practice arose of choosing outsiders as kings to defuse the internal fighting. They were a two-chamber assembly in which landowners completely dominated which allowed them to put peasantry in serfdom.
• The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic spanned what years? How did the Treaty of Westphalia affect the Dutch?
  • The Golden Age spanned from 1581-1702 and the Treaty of Westphalia ended the 80 years war between the Dutch and Spanish with Dutches independence.
• A quasi-democratic system of government was practiced in the United Provinces. What is a stadholder? What was the States General? Why didn't it ever formulate into an actual monarchy?
  • A stadkiller was officially responsible for leading the army and managing power of the area. The States General was an assembly of representatives from every providence. By the 17th century, after the death of Willian III, republicans gained control of the government preventing an actual monarchy.
• Why were the Dutch so economically prosperous for a short time? (hint, several factors are at play here, read the whole section before answering)
  • The Dutch East India company made it so economically prosperous by obtaining goods for the Dutch. The Dutch East India Company made it economically prosperous by gaining spices, silk, and tea from Asia. Those were considered some of the most valuable and wealth representing goods of the time.

• Elizabeth I was the last of the English Tudor dynasty, who succeeded her to the throne? In what major ways (list at least a few) was he very different from Elizabeth I?
  • James I was Elizabeth I´s successor to the English throne. He used the divine right of kings, disturbed the balance of power between the monarchy and parliament. He further angered parliament by alienating the Puritans who held a lot of power within England.
• Who are the puritans? How did they butt heads with James I?
  • The Puritans were protestants in the Anglican Church inspired by Calvinist theology and they strongly disliked James I. They wanted James to eliminate the episcopal system of church organization used in the Church of England in favor of presbyterian model.
• What is the gentry? What role did they have in England at this time? Where did their religious affiliation lie?
  • The gentry were the elite of the English countryside. They were generally a class of landowners and people worked for them, they didn't work. Their religious affiliations differed but many were English Puritans.
• Charles I got along even less with Parliament than his father did. What is the Petition of Right, and how did he feel about it? What was his reaction against Parliament?
  • The Petition of Right is an agreement the king has to sign before taxing people which prohibits taxation without Parliament's consent, arbitrary imprisonment, soldier-quartering, and did not allow military rules during peacetime. Charles I didn't like Parliament's control of his power and decided he couldn't work with Parliament, so he wouldn't summon them and pursued a course of personal rule.
• How did Charles I raise revenue for England if his power was so limited by the nobles?
  • Charles I tried to get money outside of Parliament with a Forced Loan in 1625 and imprisonment without trial for the people that refused to pay the loan.
• What was the event that forced Charles I to finally call together Parliament to ask for help? What happened during the "Long Parliament" to limit the King's authority?
  • Charles I financially trapped himself by not calling on Parliament to try to be separated and unable to raise troops to defend against the Scots, he finally called Parliament for help. The Long Parliament abolished arbitrary courts, certain taxes, and passage of the Triennial Act which made sure Parliament would meet every three years with or without the king's consent to limit the King's authority.
• What did Charles I do that caused England to break out into Civil War? What are Cavaliers? What are Roundheads? (hint, you will have to use outside sources to find the answer to the second two)
  • Charles I tried to take advantage of the splits in Parliament between radical and settled parliamentarians by arresting members of radical factions and Puritans in Parliament decided the king had gone too far. Cavaliers are supporters of Charles I during this English Civil war and Roundheads are supporters of Parliament during this war.
• What was the "New Model Army" and who was its leader? What happened to Charles I during this time?
  • The New Model Army was a highly trained and disciplined army led by Thomas Fairfax with Oliver Cromwell. Charles I was defeated at the Battle of Naseby which was the first of many defeats.
• Parliament was split between a majority and minority? What was the standpoint of the majority? Who controlled the army? What did Cromwell do to achieve an undisputed victory? What was the Rump Parliament?
  • The majority was Presbyterian and wanted to disband the army and restore Charles I with Presbyterian State Church The minority was army and radical independents who opposed an established Presbyterian Church. They were controlled by Oliver Cromwell, supported Parliament, engaged in the 2nd civil war, and purged Presbyterian parliaments. The Rump Parliament was 53 members of the House of Commons who condemned Charles I on treason.
• During the Commonwealth of England how did Cromwell govern? Name some groups who opposed him and how he handled their opposition.
  • Cromwell governed with brutality and the Levelers, radically minded groups who took advantage of the upheaval in England, to push their agendas. Radicals opposed Cromwell so he smashed the radicals by force.
• What happened when Oliver Cromwell died? Who was the leader and how was England fundamentally different than before? On the other hand, what did they restore to make things like they were before?
  • After eleven years, Cromwell died and the monarchy was reestablished, however his efforts helped Parliament gain morepower. Parliament invited Charles II back to England to be crowned King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. When Charles II tookthe throne all that had changed was the system in which the government was run. Charles II took the throne as a limited monarch and he had much less power than kings before him had had.
• What was the biggest weakness of Charles II, according to Puritan parliamentary members? What was the Declaration of Indulgence? What was the Test Act?
  • Charles II was too sympathetic to Catholics according to the Puritan Parliament members. The Declaration of Indulgence suspended the penal code against all religious Nonconformists, Catholic and Dissenter and the Test Act was a series of religious tests for public offices that favored Puritans.
• Who are the Whigs and what did they support? Who are the Tories and what did they support?
  • The Whigs were a political group established by Parliament's attempts to keep Catholics from the English throne and out of office positions, they excluded James and established Protestant King with Toleration of nonconformists in their beliefs. The Tories were similar to the Whigs but they supported the King, despite their dislike of James as a Catholic, because they believed Parliament should not mess with succession to the throne.
• How did England handle the ascension of James II to the throne and his short 3 year reign?
  • James' religion was the primary cause of conflict between the king and the parliament because of their differences. The seven prominent English noblemen invited William of Orange to invade England and take the throne from James II because of their religious dislike of him.
• What was the Glorious Revolution? Who became the new monarchs of England? When they passed the English Bill of Rights, what did it ensure?
  • The Glorious Revolution was a conflict over who would be the monarch and the new monarchs of England were William of Orange and Mary, who was James' daughter. The English Bill of Rights affirmed Parliament's rights to make laws, levy taxes, and made it impossible for kings to raise a standing army without Parliament consent.
• What was the Toleration Act of 1689? To what extent was England both similar to and different from other places in Europe, such as France, during the 17th century? (hint, again, this could be a valid writing question, think carefully)
  • The Toleration Act of 1689 granted Puritan Dissenters (Protestants, ect) the right of free public worship, excluding Catholics because of their mutual hate. Most of Europe has had bloody religious disputes like England and France was not religiously tolerant in the slightest because their king revokes the Edict of Nantes.
• Who was Thomas Hobbes and what were his views on human nature? How was John Locke fundamentally different from Hobbes?
  • Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher best known for his political views. Hobbes describes human nature as, without organization, having no morals and based solely on the human extinct for survival no matter the cost. He believed that without organization human nature was pure animal instinct, vicious, and cruel. John Locke on the other hand believed that humans always live in a state of equality and that humans always had a set of unalienable rights that would not be violated.

The Flourishing of European Culture#

• Explain the diversity of England's theater scene.
  • The theaters held almost 3,000 people and charged very little so people from all classes could attend. As many as six theaters were open six afternoons a week, a dramatic change from old theater that wasn't very popular.
• Why is Shakespeare recognized as a universal genius?
  • Shakespeare was a master of the English language and became very important in codifying the English language which was still in transition. Shakespeare also exhibited a great understanding of the human psychology and condition in his plays.
• Who was Spain's most famous playwright in the last 15oo's – early 1600's? What did he consider to be the foremost duty of a playwright and how did that affect what he wrote?
  • Lope de Vega was their most famous playwright and he made it obvious his plays were written to please his audience which he stated was their foremost duty. It affected what he wrote because instead of writing what he thinks is right he is writing what he knows the audience wants to hear.
• How was theater in France different from that in England and Spain?
  • French theater focused more on the elite audience and relied on its royal patronage.
• Who were the two most famous French playwrights? How did their styles differ?
  • Jean-Baptist Racine had themes from Classic Greek and Roman styles while Jean-Baptiste Moliere wrote comedies that applied to their current time. Racines focused on love, horror, or duty revealing the tragic dimensions in life and Moliere focused on satirizing the religious and social world of the time.