The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment

During the Enlightenment the rationalism of scientific thought was applied to political and economic ideas. Traditional societal and religious ideas were challenged by Voltaire and Diderot, who promoted enlightened despotism and deism, while Locke and Rousseau came up with new political models involving the concepts of natural law and natural rights that challenged absolutism.

Crash Course#

Major Concepts#

• Enlightenment
• skepticism
• cultural relativism
• philosophes
• cosmopolitan
• separation of powers
• deism
• laissez-faire
• economic liberalism

The Enlightenment#

• Read the introduction to the chapter. What did the term "Enlightenment" mean in the 18th century? Who was Marie Therese de Geoffrin? What role did women play in the Enlightenment?
  • The term "Enlightenment" meant "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity." Marie Therese de Geoffrin was a wife of a wealthy merchant who held discussions on a wide-range of topics.
• How was the Enlightenment, in many ways, an extension of the Scientific Revolution of the previous century or so? What fundamental beliefs carried on throughout both?
  • The Enlightenment was a movement of intellectuals who dared to know. This was similar to the ideas scientists had in the scientific revolution. Both used the word reason to advocate their ideas.
• Who was Bernard de Fontanelle? Why was he such a pivotal character of the Enlightenment if he never did any actual experiments or made any new discoveries?
  • He was secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science. He possessed a deep knowledge of all the scientific work of earlier centuries and his own time. He was also able to communicate that body of scientific knowledge in a meaningful way.
• What is skepticism? How was this "New Skepticism" different from the previous century?
  • Skepticism is doubt. New Skepticism is different because of the skepticism towards the church and not science.
• Who was Pierre Bayle? What was his attitude towards religion?
  • Protestant who attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. In his view, compelling people to believe a particular set of religious ideas was wrong.
• How are the ideas of "skepticism" and "cultural relativism" connected? What is "cultural relativism" and why were people thinking about it?
  • The christian perception of god was merely one of many. In James Cook's Travels, he writes "every day they see a new religion, new customs, new rites." which made the public further skepticize the church. This is the idea of cultural relativism, culture is defined by the area and is not equal everywhere.
• Spielvogel credits two Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke, for being the most intellectually inspirational pre-Enlightenment thinkers. We already learned about Newton. Who is Locke? What did he write? Why were his ideas new and significant?
  • Locke brought the idea of citizens' rights which was not default in this time period. He believed in right of liberty, justice, and property.
• What is a "philosophe" and what kinds of roles did they play in society? What was the capital of the Enlightenment?
  • Philosophes were literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and above all, social reformers. They came from nobility and the middle class, and a few from the lower class.
  • Paris was the recognized capital with most of the Enlightement leaders being French.
• How did the philosophe's feel about censorship?
  • Philosophes called for freedom of expression because their work was done with censorship. They were not free to write whatever they chose. They found ways to get around censorship however.
• What were the ideas put forth by Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws? Although he was French, who did he use as a model example of government? Why?
  • Montesquieu called for separation of power (separating the government into judicial, legislative, and executive).
  • He used England as a model example of government because England's constitution was most far-reaching in terms of rights and had a lasting contribution to political thought with an importance on checks and balances created by separation of powers.
• What class was Voltaire from and what line of work brought him early success? Of which elements in French society and government was Voltaire most critical?
  • Voltaire was a middle-class playwright. Voltaire was most critical about religious fanaticism, intolerance, and superstition.
• What was the "Calas Affair" and how did it relate to Voltaire's opinion of the church?
  • Protestant Calas was accused of murdering his own son to stop him from becoming a Catholic. Voltaire's appeals for toleration appeared all the more reasonable.
• What is "Deism"? Are deists atheists or not? Do they believe in God? If so, how are they different than typical Christians?
  • Deism is belief in god but he does not tamper with the universe. They are not atheists.
• Who is Denis Diderot and what is he best known for helping create?
  • Diderot was the son of a skilled craftsman from eastern France who helped make the encyclopedia.
• Spielvogel says that many of the philosophes of the 18th century attempted to uncover "Natural Laws" pertaining to the "Science of Man." What did he mean by this? Were they successful? Why or why not?
  • Natural Laws were the parts of all areas of human life and the science of man were the social sciences. The philosophes arrived at natural laws that they believed governed human actions. Less universal now, but laid the foundation for modern social sciences.
• Who is David Hume? What was his famous work entitled and what did he argue in it?
  • David Hume was a Scottish philosopher who wrote Treatise on Human Nature which he argued that observation and reflection, gtrounded in "systematized common sense," made conceivable a "science of man."
• Who are the "Physiocrats" and what did they study? What were the names of some notable physiocrats?
  • The group that believed in natural economic laws that governed society such as land is the source of wealth, supported supply and demand, and created laissez- faire. Opposed mercantilism.
  • Notable Physiocrats included Quesnay and Smith.
• In what respect did physiocrats reject (or repudiate) mercantilist economic beliefs? What did they stress as being different from what mercantilists fundamentally believed? What is "laissez-faire" economics?
  • Physiocrats wanted the existence of natural economic forces of supply/demand to make individuals freer to pursue their own economic self-interest.
  • Laissez-faire: hands-off the economy government
• What did Adam Smith write in The Wealth of Nations? How was his argument just slightly different than the physiocrats? What is "economic liberalism" and is this term the same as what we view as "liberal" today? Why not?
  • Smith condemned tarriffs in mercantilism as a way to protect home industries. He loved free trade. He did not fully oppose mercantilism but parts of it.
  • Economic Liberalism: economic liberty of individual (pertains to just economy whereas "liberal" today is a social/political term)
• How were Paul d'Holbach's views considered rather extreme, or radical, for his time?
  • D'Holbach's views were atheist while most other intellects were deist at the time.
• Why is Marie-Jean de Condorcets's view of humanity both ironic and tragic?
  • Condorcet stated humans went through nine phases and the tenth phase was about humans being perfect. He died later in prison.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau has to be one of the more complex figures of the Enlightenment. His ideas are at times obscure and contradicting. Do the best you can to describe his views on the following topics: Government, Social Contract, General Will, Individual Freedoms, Education.
  • Government
    • Necessary evil
  • Social Contract
    • Agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will - if individual wants to follow - self-interest, they should abide by general will
  • General Will
    • community's highest aspirations - what's best for the community; liberty = forcing people to follow what's best for all because that's best for individuals
  • Individual Freedoms
    • adherence to laws one has imposed on oneself - creation of laws ≠ parliament's job because everybody is responsible for framing general will
  • Education
    • should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts - balance between heart and mind
• How did the Enlightenment, in some ways, reinforce the same old gender values that had been practiced in pre-Enlightenment times?
  • "natural" biological differences (women = destined to be mothers; men = more intellectual than women)
• Who was Mary Astell? What were two major ideas she argued?
  • Astell was the daughter of a wealthy coal merchant who argued women needed to become better educated and equality of the sexes in marriage.
• Who was Mary Wollstonecraft? What did she write? What contradictions did she point out from other male Enlightenment thinkers?
  • English writer who wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women
  • 1. women obey men - contrary to hatred of arbitrary power of monarch over subjects/slave owners over slaves
  • 2. Enlightenment based on reason (innate in all people) - women have reason and are entitled to the same rights as men
• In terms of social class, who most benefited from the Enlightenment? Why? Who were most likely to oppose such a movement? Who was least affected by the Enlightenment?
  • aristocracy and upper middle class because the the spread of ideas was targeted to literate elite and they had salons
  • authorities/church because of conflicting beliefs and decreasing power
  • common people (peasants)
• What are Salons? What function did they serve in the 17th and 18th centuries? Who ran them? What other venues of the time had similar functions?
  • elegant drawing rooms in urban houses of the wealthy
  • invited philosophes and guests gather to engage in philosophic conversations
  • ran by women
  • coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, libraries

Culture and Society in the Enlightenment#

• How is Rococo art different from the Baroque (hint, be very deliberate and specific about how you answer this one… ALWAYS avoid using generic terms like "more detailed" or "realistic" when describing any art style)
  • Baroque
    • stressed majesty
    • power
    • movement
    • emotion
    • chaos
  • Rococo
    • grace
    • gentle actions
    • curves instead of strict geometrical patterns
    • secular
• What are some examples of Rococo art and architectural styles? Who are the artists that created each? (hint, name at least 3)
  • Watteau created lyrical views of aristocratic life such as Return from Cythera
  • Neumann created architecture such as the Vierzehnheiligen
  • David created Oath of the Horatii
• Fill out the chart below describing music of the 17th and 18th centuries.

• What is the significance of the development of the novel during this time? What makes novels different than other books? To which audience were novels most appealing? What are some more notable novelists?
  • grew out of medieval romances and picturesque stories of the 16th century
  • no established rules, all experimentation
  • women readers and writers
• How did the writing of history change in the period of the Enlightenment from how it was written by humanists of the Renaissance? What was emphasized? What were the weaknesses?
  • Enlightenment = secular (concentrate on themselves and relationships)
  • Renaissance = also secular, but not as intense (not complete removal of God)
  • emphasis: science of reason
  • weaknesses: preoccupation as philosophes - goal = follow classics, civilize the age
• What is the difference between "high culture" and "popular culture"? What parts of society made up each group? What role did print media play in the 18th century?
  • high culture: the literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes - theologians, scientists, intellectuals, poets, and dramatists
  • popular culture: the written and unwritten lore of the masses
  • reading, writing, and publishing books and newspapers increased and reached the middle class as the elite
• How did education change in the 18th century? Who obtained an education during this era? What did their education focus upon, and what reforms were made toward the end of the 18th century?
  • more private schools
  • the elite
  • classics (Greek/Latin) - little math, science, or modern language
  • physics, astronomy, and math were introduced to universities
• How were punishments handled almost everywhere in Europe? How frequently was the death penalty invoked? What differences existed between social classes in terms of judicial punishments?
  • heirarchy of courts (except England - torture)
  • death penalty - commonly used for property crimes and violent offenses
  • nobles = beheaded; lower-classes = tortured, broken on wheel, drawn and quartered
• Who is Cesare Beccaria? What did he write? When did he write it? What did he argue about capital punishment?
  • Italian philosopher who was appalled by unjust laws and brutal punishments in criminal justice system
  • On Crimes and Punishments (1764)
  • opposed to capital punishment because it failed to stop others from committing crimes
• How was medicine conducted in the 17th and 18th centuries? Was there much forward progress during this time? What were the differences between physicians, surgeons (or barber-surgeons), and apothecaries? How were they regarded in society?
  • conducted in Latin and based on Galen's work
  • appeals were made but efforts at hospital reform remained ineffectual
• What role did "festivals" or "fetes" play in popular culture? How was "Carnival" different from other festivals?
  • Festivals and fetes were the broad term of a variety of group celebrations in the Catholic church. Carnival was prior to Lent and served as a time for those to engage in things they would not be able to engage in during Lent.
• What function did taverns play in places like England and Russia? What effect did alcohol have on the social classes?
• What are chapbooks? How did literacy amongst the lower classes in France spread in this time?
  • Chapbooks were cheap leaflets sold to the lower classes containing both religious and secular topics. Chapbooks caused a great increase in literacy in France.
• What was the attitude of the ruling classes of educating the poor? Why do you think this was the case?
  • effective primary education = hindered; ruling class feared consequences of teaching lower class anything
  • beyond virtues of hard work and deference to superiors (keep them obedient so ruling class doesn't lose power)

Religion and the Churches#

• Both the Catholic and Protestant churches found themselves in a similar position during these centuries. What roles did they play?
  • institutions that upheld society's hierarchical structure, privileged classes, and traditions
• What happened to the Jesuits during this time? What two greater trends did this collapse represent in terms of the direction the Catholic church was heading during the 18th century?
  • decline in papal power
  • government gained power of Catholic churches
• How much progress was made toward religious tolerance during this time?
  • many rulers found it difficult to accept other religions
  • true duty of rulers was to not allow subjects to be heretics and go to Hell; heretics were persecuted
  • Joseph II of Austria & Toleration Patent: made subjects equal (Catholic can practice publicly, and anything else practices privately)
• What are pogroms and who were most often targeted by them? How did the philosophes react to this?
  • organized massacre of Jewish communities
  • philosophes argued that Jews were humans and deserved citizenship "despite" their religion
  • philosophes denounced persecution of Jews but continued to be hostile and ridicule Jewish traditions
• Religious devotion remained strong in the 18th century despite skepticism and deism. Spielvogel argues that because of these movements, however, some theologians moved to a more "rational" Christianity, favoring greater depths of religious experience. What were a few approaches to accomplishing this?
  • One method was Pietism, which called for a personal experience with God.
• Who is John Wesley? How was his take on religion different?
  • He formed Methodism which believed all people were capable of being saved by Christ.